Hashish is a resin obtained from the flowers and leaves of the cannabis plant. Why has it always been surrounded by a mystical aura and plenty of legends? It is due to its psychoactive properties, its usage in mystical practices as well as due to the romanization of hashish by great European writers of the 19th-century.
We present five fascinating facts about the connection between hashish and the history of world culture.
The first written mention of hashish (cannabis resin) dates back to 1550 BCE, found in the ancient Egyptian medical document known as the Ebers Papyrus. In ancient Egypt, hashish was used to alleviate pain and treat eye diseases. Traces of cannabinoids have even been found in Egyptian tombsand some archaeologists believe that Egyptians may have used cannabis resin during the royal burial rituals.
Earlier references to cannabis can be found in the cuneiform writings of Ancient Mesopotamia, where the Sumerians used it in medicine and religious practices.
Cannabis and its extracts were also used in Ancient Greece. The Greek physician Dioscorides wrote about the plant’s psychoactive resin in the 1st century AD, and five centuries earlier, Hippocrates had mentioned cannabis as well.
Marijuana was also used in ancient Chinese medicine. The classical medical text " Shennong Bencaojing" of the 1st century mentions cannabis pollen as a treatment for mental disorders.
Avicenna, the great scholar and philosopher of medieval Persia, wrote extensively about plant-based drugs and their derivatives in his medical treatise “The Canon of Medicine”. He viewed hashish relatively balanced, acknowledging its properties to cure pain and insomnia but also warning of its side effects like hallucinations and disorientation.
By the 11th century, hashish had gained significant popularity in the Islamic world. After Avicenna, many other healers in the medieval East studied the properties of cannabis resin.
Hashish, under various names, has been known since ancient times, particularly in India, where it was used and still is used in religious ceremonies. The Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism, mention "bhang" – a sacred drink made from concentrated cannabis pollen mixed with milk. Followers of the god Shiva believed and believe that consuming bhang helps to achieve divine ecstasy and draw closer to the Truth.
In some Buddhist traditions, there is a myth that consuming hashish can be a step toward Nirvana: followers claim that hashish allows one to "disconnect" from the material world and reach higher levels of consciousness, maintaining that awareness even after the effects of the drug have worn off.
As Islam and Sufism — a mystical branch of Islam seeking a direct experience of God — spread across India and other parts of the Muslim world, Sufi rituals involving hashish followed. Sufi mystics used cannabis resin as a tool for spiritual enlightenment and altered states of consciousness.
However, hashish in the form it is consumed today gained real popularity in the Arab world during the Middle Ages. Arabs smoked it through a rudimentary version of the hookah for relaxation, inspiration, and spiritual enlightenment. Hashish was particularly popular among the Fedayeen, warriors who followed Shiite Islam: consuming hashish became part of their lifestyle.
The legend tells that during the 13th and 14th centuries, there existed a secretive sect in the East known as the Assassins (or "Hashishins"). It was a Shiite order of elusive and highly skilled assassins who waged covert warfare against the enemies of Islam. According to the legend, the leaders of the Assassins used hashish to instill a sense of divine inspiration in their warriors, which in turn granted them almost supernatural agility and precision.
The primary source of myths surrounding the Hashishins comes from the great traveler Marco Polo. It was he who, in his writings, described the Hashishins as possessing extraordinary abilities. He claimed that their leader kept a harem of Eastern beauties and lived in opulence. Marco Polo recounted how the leader intoxicated his warriors with hashish and blindfold them, leading them into his magnificent palace. When the blindfolds were removed, the warriors believed they had entered paradise, awestruck by the ethereal beauty of the palace, further heightened by the effects of the drug.
Historians generally agree that the origin of the order dates back to around 1090 in Persia, founded by the religious leader Hassan-i-Sabbah. Members of the order did indeed carry out secret assassinations of Sunni rulers and other enemies of the faith, and their leader convinced his followers that engaging in a "holy war" and dying for the cause would guarantee them a special place in paradise.
During the late Middle Ages, hashish was consumed in designated establishments called "mahalas" in countries like Egypt and Turkey.
In the famous collection of Arabian folktales One Thousand and One Nights, hashish is mentioned multiple times in the context of Eastern traditions. In the classical Arabic version, hashish is referred to as "potion" or "elixir," and sages offer it for deep visions of ecstasy.
A mysterious substance was found within the ruins of an ancient city, and those who encountered it were struck with visions of the past and future.
The Story of the "City of Brass" from The Arabian Nights collection
He drank deeply from the cup, and as the liquid spread through his veins, his mind slipped away into a trance of blissful oblivion.
The Tale of the “Wazir and His Son” from The Arabian Nights collection
The Sultan took the cup, full of green liquid, and when he drank, his eyes became transparent like glass, and before him unfolded the entire world, like an open book, in which he could read all its secrets.
“The Legend of the Sultan” from The Arabian Nights collection
Specifically, the Spanish Inquisition, which operated faster and more ruthlessly than its Roman counterpart, used to burn hashish smokers at the stake. And this isn’t surprising, given that under the banner of "preserving the holy Catholic faith," Spain was combating the threat of Moorish invasions — Arab tribes that posed a danger to the southern lands of the Iberian Peninsula. Who smoked hashish in the Middle Ages? Correct, the Arabs. Thus, the consumption of hashish became sufficient grounds for the Inquisition to label someone a witch or sorcerer and burn them at the stake.
This is where the myths about hashish spread across Europe, portraying it not merely as a drug, but as something greater — magical, mystical, and endowed with supernatural powers. In Spain, rumors circulated that magicians used hashish to communicate with spirits and gain hidden knowledge from the otherworld. These rumors transformed into legends and spread across Europe.
In the 19th century, France saw the rise of "hashish clubs", creative salons where artists and writers used hashish for inspiration. The most famous club was Club des Hashishins, founded in Paris in the 1840s by psychiatrist Jacques Mory de Toura. Among the members of the club were Alexandre Dumas, Charles Baudelaire, Theophile Gautier, Arthur Rimbaud, Honore de Balzac, Victor Hugo, and many other geniuses of the time.
At the club, the Egyptian Dawamesque – a hashish-based concoction with pistachios, orange juice, and eastern spices – was particularly popular. Jacques Morselli de Toura ordered it directly from Egypt.
The members of Club des Hashishins often referenced hashish and Dawamesque in their works. Here are a few quotes:
"– So, this is hashish!" exclaimed Franz. "I've heard of it."
"– Exactly, my dear Aladdin, this is hashish – the finest, purest Alexandrian hashish, from Abu Ghor, the incomparable master, a great man who should have had a palace built in his honor, with the inscription: ‘To the Seller of Happiness – a Grateful Humanity.'"
"– You know," said Franz, "I’d like to experience the truth of your praise myself."
Alexandre Dumas, "The Count of Monte Cristo"
I sit in a dark room, with a pipe in my hand, and I sink into a peaceful state, where stars meet my senses, where thoughts, like spicy fragrances, carry me far beyond the earthly cares.
Charles Baudelaire, "Flowers of Evil"
By the way, in the movie “Total Eclipse’, in which Leonardo Di Caprio plays Arthur Rimbaud and David Thewlis portrays Paul Verlaine, the exploits of these great poets in the hashish club are vividly depicted.
In the 19th century, when drugs became popular among European colonizers and travelers, the legend of the "Green Paradise" began to spread. It refers to a mythical place, where each breath from a hookah filled with hashish transported one into a world free of worries and fear. This myth was further cemented by the works of French writers such as Charles Baudelaire, who chronicled his experiences with hashish in Algeria.
Some researchers believe that Impressionism may have been partly inspired by the altered perception of reality under the influence of hashish. Artists such as Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cézanne were known to have visited hashish clubs.
In contemporary culture, hashish symbolizes freedom and rebellion, becoming a part of counterculture.
In the 1950s-60s, when the "beat generation" emerged in the USA and Europe, many writers, poets, and artists began using hashish and other drugs to expand their creative horizons. They undoubtedly wrote about it in their works.
We smoked hashish and talked about the meaning of life, not noticing how time flew by…
Jack Kerouac, "On the Road" (1957)
Hashish is also mentioned in other 20th-century bestsellers like “South Wind, West Wind” by Haruki Murakami, “One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest” by Ken Kesey, and “The Alchemist” by Paulo Coelho.
The great French writer and film director Jean Cocteau frequently mentioned how drugs, particularly hashish, helped him find new creative ideas and inspiration for both film and literature.
In music, especially in reggae and hip-hop, hashish symbolizes personal freedom and protest against the societal system. The popularity of hashish can be seen in the artworks of musicians Bob Marley, Method Man, Dr. Dre, and other iconic figures.
Today one of the most famous proponents of marijuana and hashish use is Snoop Dogg, who has consistently advocated for it in both his music and personal life. He recently opened his own cannabis club in LA and participated in various political campaigns related to marijuana legalization.
Hashish also influenced rock culture, which itself is a symbol of protest and freedom. Many rock artists, such as Jimi Hendrix, The Doors, and almost all the musicians from Woodstock, openly spoke about their experiences with hashish and other psychoactive substances. This influence is evident in their musical style and song lyrics.
My life is free now, my life is clear
I love you sweet leaf, though you can’t hear
Oh, yeah baby!
Black Sabbath, "Sweet Leaf"
Thus, the role of hashish has transformed from a source of inspiration and expanded consciousness for the intellectuals of the 19th century to a symbol of personal freedom and resistance to societal norms. Today, this is most clearly reflected in the music and lifestyle of many popular musicians.